The Native American War for Independence: Tenskwatawa, Tecumseh, and the War of 1812

The War of 1812 has been called the "forgotten war," and it's place in American history is ongoing changes as its bicentennial observation gets underway. The War of 1812 may be thought of as three different wars: the naval war against the British (John Paul Jones and the USS Constitution--"Old Ironsides"); the resistance to the war demonstrated in New England (the abortive Hartford Convention, which discussed secession 50 years before the southern slave states temporarily formed the Confederate States); and lastly, but more importantly to us in the Midwest, the war in the interior of the country fought between whites and Native Americans and their British allies. As a result of the outcome of the War of 1812, the Native American confederacy that had been building since the establishment of settlement at Greenville of the Shawnee Prophet Tenskwatawa disintegrated, and active opposition to further white settlement in the Great Lakes region vanished with it.

That opposition was centered on two Shawnee men, brothers we know as Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa. For many years, it was thought by white scholars that Tecumseh was the leader of this movement--Tecumseh was acknowledged by most as a brilliant warrior and leader of men in battle. Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee Prophet, on the other hand, was depicted by whites as  cunning, underhanded usurper, who in his drive to take over Tecumseh's movement undercut his brother's efforts with an ill-fated attack on American militia forces near the confluence of the Tippecanoe and  Wabash Rivers in November 1811--the opening shots of the War of 1812 in the Great Lakes region. During the last thirty years or so, however, this interpretation has undergone extensive revision, beginning with the biography of Tenskwatawa by R. David Edmonds, and most recently with the account of the relationship between William Henry Harrison and Tenskwatawa by Adam Jortner. The reasons for this reinterpretation are various, but are largely due to the re-assessment of the sources that scholars have long relied upon to shape this story.

Before we tackle the reinterpretation, however, we need to lay out the basic facts as best we can. In the Great Lakes region--or the pays d'en haut as French voyageurs called it--was a region in a great deal of flux because of the changes caused by white contact with various native peoples. Those closest to the coast were effected earliest, but eventually most native peoples sought contact with Europeans for the trade goods they were willing to exchange for animal pelts--especially beaver. This desire for trade goods increased conflicts between native peoples; some of the trade goods obtained, in particular firearms, made this conflict more deadly. To escape the violence, many native peoples moved to the interior of the country--where they had to learn to co-exist with the native peoples already living there.

 Among the native peoples already living in the Great Lakes regions were the Shawnee people. The Shawnee, in fact, had recently moved back into what whites were now calling the Ohio country--the had fled the earlier carnage caused by the attack of the Iroquois Confederacy on the Wendot (later known as the Hurons and Wyandottes) people during an earlier conflict. Many scholars believe that Shawnee to be the descendants of the so-called Fort Ancient peoples, responsible for the construction of many of the mound structures around Ohio. Once the group returned to Ohio, many proved reluctant to move again; the Shawnee attempted to make strategic allies with whites that would allow them to continue to control the land on which they lived; the Shawnee allied with the British in the French and Indian War, for example--but were among the earliest allies of the Ottawa chief Pontiac in his attempt to confederate all native groups into a single force to remove white settler from what they considered their land.

We believe that in 1768, Tecumseh was born in Old Piqua, on the Mad River, into a large family headed by Puckshinwa and Methotaske. By 1774, the ongoing conflict claimed the life of Puckshinwa at the Battle of Point Pleasant; the following spring, Methotase gave birth to the last of their children from the relationship--triplets, including one called Lalawethicka (which translates into "the Rattle"). By 1780, the boy's mother had abandoned her children to the care of her eldest daughter, and moved west to escape the constant threat of violence. After abandoning the battlefield in his first conflict in 1782, Tecumseh vowed such an occurrence would never happen again. Tecumseh later took part in the native defeats of American army forces under the command of both of both Josiah Harmar and Arthur St. Clair; Tecumseh and Lalawethicka were both also present at the defeat of native forces at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Tecumseh refused to sign the Treaty of Greenville, however, and moved his small band, including his brother, to a settlement near present-day Anderson, Indiana,

Here the group foundered--especially Lalawethicka, who seems to have attempted to drown his troubles in alcohol. Just after one such bout, Lalawethicka became unconscious while attempting to light his pipe in the fire; tradition has it that he had to in fact be lifted out of the fire by his family. Lalawethicka remained unconscious for an extended period of time--long enough, in fact to convince his family that he had passed away. As they were preparing his body for burial, however, he awakened with an astonishing tale of passing into a realm beyond Earth, and having a conversation with the Great Spirit, who told him that all native peoples had to reform their ways or suffer an excruciating eternal damnation.

Tenskwatawa (as Lalawethicka began calling himself--the name means "the Open Door") called for native peoples to give up all European trade goods, especially alcohol, and return to "traditional ways of life." He soon claimed that the Great Spirit had informed him that he should establish a settlement at Greenville, Ohio to proselytize to other native peoples. Greenville was, of course, the site of the treaty signing took place, and despite denials seems to have been an act to provoke a response from both the Ohio state government and the federal government, The move to Greenville coincided with Willliam Henry Harrison's negotiation of the Treaty of Fort Wayne in 1805. Harrison saw this as a means to consolidate his political position in the Indiana Territory (soon to be a state, Harrison hoped). Native peoples saw the treaty in an entirely different light, of course, and sought leaders who promised to put a stop to the cessation of land to whites--just what Tenskwatawa was advocating in Greenville. Soon, many whites in Ohio were in a panic over the number of Native peoples going to  Greenville, and were attempting to persuade both the federal government and the state of Ohio to intervene. Neither governmental body was willing to do so, however, because of the cost involved. Not all whites were convinced that Tenskwatawa was up to some nefarious plan, either; visiting Shakers came away convinced that Greenville had been transformed into a "holy place."

The majority of whites were made uncomfortable by the large numbers of native peoples traveling to Greenville, and continued to pressure the government of Ohio to act. Fortunately, it was about this time that the Great Spirit informed Tenskwatawa that his village should be moved to a new place--on the Tippecanoe River, near where it empties into the Wabash. This moved Tenskwatawa closer to many of his native allies--but also closer to the strongest voice calling for the disbandment of the Prophet's village, William Henry Harrison. The establishment of this new settlement, known to whites as Prophetstown, was a direct challenge to Harrison's plans for the territory--and a threat to his economic well-being, as well, since he had invested a considerable sum in purchasing much of the land his treaty negotiations had "acquired" from Native Americans. It was these conflicts that led to the War of 1812 in the Great Lakes region.

Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, Myth and History

I. Tecumseh's Death and His Mythologizing

A. Death's Blessings--in many ways, the death of Tecumseh helped solidify his standing, particularly since his death freed him of the responsibility for the military pursuit he was attempting to promote. This phenomenon can be seen in the careers of many "great Americans."

1. Abraham Lincoln--Lincoln's assassination came just a week after the victory of the Union over the Confederacy, and has meant that he has received much of the credit for that victory. His death also meant that he avoided the difficulties that presented Andrew Johnson so many difficulties, including the political problems with the Radical Republicans (which Lincoln undoubtedly would have faced as well).

2. Contrast with Ulysses Grant--by way of contrast, Grant was a great hero at the end of the war--so much so that the country (or, at least, the Republican Party) turned to him to be president after the conflicts of the Johnson years. But his two terms as President were marked by corruption, which has damaged his reputation.

3. Tenskwatawa--Essentially, Tenskwatawa bore the brunt of Tecumseh's defeat. The Battle of Thames took place in early October 1813. With the defeat, keeping approximately 1,000 Native Americans became the responsibility of Tenskwatawa alone. He was able to accomplish this, but the history books have not seen fit to recognize this as much of an accomplishment. Instead, the post-war narrative of Tenskwatawa's story emphasizes his return to drink, his turn to accommodationist politics after his return to the United States, his failure to realize his dream.

II. Inevitably and Historical Contingency

A. Historical Inevitability--the trend of the study of history until recently was to argue that historical events happened because it was inevitable that they happen that way--that, in fact, there could be no other outcome. This argument has a lot of intuitive power. It is difficult to imagine different outcomes, because those outcomes did not in fact happen--and it is easy to believe that these outcomes were some way destined to happen.

B. Historical Contingency--Most historians today argue for the idea of historical contingency--that events in the past happen for specific reasons, but that at the same time these reasons shift in importance as our relationship to the past changes; we come to see particular causes become more important than others. Historians today also favor arguments that recognize the role that accident plays in historical events

C. Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa--The brothers were reacting to the circumstances that they saw threatening their traditional way of life. To combat this threat, they used both aspects of traditional culture, and innovations they created, to try to achieve this. While recognizing that ultimately this effort failed, it is important to recognize how close it came to working. While circumstances ultimately worked against them, the brothers refused to accept that they could not change those circumstances.

Written Assignment 16

The first written assignment asked you to define "great." Has what you learned in this class caused you to revisit that definition? Do Tenskwatawa and/or Tecumseh meet that definition? Why, or why not?

Written Assignment 15

The assigned readings for this course, particularly R. David Edmunds The Shawnee Prophet and John Sugden's Tecumseh: A Life were the opening of an effort to reinterpret the lives of Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh. As such, they both broke new ground, and re-hashed old arguments. From what you have learned during this course, I would like to to assess both books--what new interpretations did the authors put forth, and what interpretations did they continue to accept as true? Do you agree with their choices? Why?

Written Assignment 14

Primary sources are the life's blood of history, but can often mislead as much as enlighten the study of events. This phenomenon we have discussed at various points in the semester when we talked about the reinterpretation of historical sources. Using primarily the documents provided during lectures on this blog, in what ways have the documents there enlightened our study of Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh--and in what way have they misled historians?

The War of 1812

I. Reasons for the War

A. The War Hawks--a relatively small group of Congressmen--all of them too young to have participated in the War of Independence--forced the issue on the Madison administration.

1. Unpopularity of Madison--Republican politicians did not trust Madison (who was, after all, a reformed Federalist). Madison, while a brilliant political theorist, was far less successful as a politician. A group of War Hawks called on Madison in the new Executive Mansion, and threatened to nominate another candidate against Madison if he did not agree to support the declaration of war.

2.Expansionary Ideology--the War Hawk were among the earliest proponents of the idea of Manifest Destiny, and looked not only to add land in the Northwest and the Southwest--but in Canada, as well.

B. Opposition to the war--the position of the War Hawks was in the minority, compared to the rest of the country.

1. New England--Much of the opposition to the war between the United States and Great Britain was centered in New England. This region had the closest cultural ties with Great Britain, and also the closest economic ties; much of the trade of the region was directly tied to Great Britain, and people in the region realized that a war would disrupt that trade. Religious ties between England and New England led to mutual recriminations against the Roman Catholics/atheists in France, as well.

2. Great Lakes Region--Surprisingly, support for the coming war was rather soft in this region, as well. In part, the reasons for this lack of support was that many thought (rightly) that much of the war would be fought in the region, which threatened their property and lives. The enthusiasm generated for the war in the region mainly came from politicians, who saw a successful conclusion to the war as a means of building political support.

3. The Old Southwest--perhaps the greatest general support for the war among the citizenry was generated in the Old Southwest (Tennessee, western Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana), who saw this as a mean of expanding slavery, and therefore economic opportunities for whites. The southwest also had a charismatic leader at the head of the militia, Andrew Jackson, who inspired greater confidence in his forces.

II. Rebuilding the Coalition (Again)

A. Re-emergence of Prophetstown--within weeks of its destruction, Prophetstown was being rebuilt, and Native Americans were flocking there to hear what the Prophet had to say--and many were joining the movement. Harrison's attack on Prophetstown had sown the seeds of renewal for the movement, as it became apparent to most observers.

1. Resurgent numbers--before the outbreak of hostilities, there were probably somewhere between 5000 and 8000 Native Americans present at Prophetstown--and this would not have included  the group of warriors now under the command of Tecumseh, who by this time had returned from his southern journey and traveled to Amherstburg to obtain supplies, largely weapons, for this warriors.

III. Fighting the War

A.The Ohio/Kentucky/Michigan militia--most of the US forces were temporary soldiers--members of the militia, who generally elected their officers, and often were not well-schooled in military tactics. During this war, as well, some called into question the authority of the officers--or even the President himself--to send them to fight in a foreign county.

B. Fall of Detroit--a force under the command of William Hull, governor of the Michigan Territory, surrendered the fort and the city to forces under the joint command of Gen. Isaac Brock, in large part because of his fear that defeat (which seemed inevitable to Hull) would mean a general massacre of the residents of Detroit without the British protection that he was able to procure.

C. Battle of Lake Erie--the decisive battle of the entire war. When Perry defeated to naval fleet, it meant that the war in the interior turned in favor of the Americans, who could suddenly supply their army, and the British forces could not obtain supplies

D. Battle of the Thames--Isaac Brock had been killed earlier in the was (after the surrender of Detroit), and was replaced by Colonel Proctor. Proctor, upon hearing about the loss on Lake Erie, decided (rightly, in my opinion), that his position at the western edge of Canada was untenable, and decided o retreat toward York (present day Toronto). Tecumseh challenged Proctor to remain and fight, but to little avail. British forces abandoned their Indian allies, and Tecumseh was killed during the ensuing battle.

The Aftermath of Tippecanoe

I. American Victory?

A. Harrison Defending His Decisions--With the Native American reaction to what they perceived to be an unprovoked attack on Prophetstown, the decision of Harrison to lead a large unit against the settlement there (and not immediately attack) was called into question.



B. Band of Brothers


C. Harrison's Continued Defense


...continues into January 1812...



D. The Disposition of the Native Americans After the Attack on Prophetstown



E. Harrison in Command

The War of 1812

The War of 1812

Written Assignment 13

Students of history often struggle to figure out not only why events happened, but also what exactly took place. This has certainly been the case with the Battle of Tippecanoe. Because this was portrayed as a great victory for the United States from the 1830s on, all evidence that the outcome was a bit more problematic was largely ignored until quite recently. Why is this the case? Is there always only one answer to explain a historical event--or do we need to find ways to incorporate  new narratives of these events? Your 2-3 page answer is due at the beginning of class on Thursday, April 19.

The Battle at Tippecanoe

I. Growing White Dissent

A. Harrison's Continuing Political Problems--the anger the 1809 Ft. Wayne Treaty caused among Native Americans was felt throughout the lower Great Lakes region, and helped fuel the continued opposition to Harrison's policies.

1. Accusations of Unfair Dealing--white opponents of Harrison accused him of dealing unfairly with Native Americans. This was not done out of any real concern for Native Americans; indeed, Harrison's main accuser, William McIntosh, prevailed in a lawsuit in which his attorneys argued (and the Supreme Court agreed) that Native Americans were an "inferior race" whose land was justifiably taken.

2. Accusation of corruption--McIntosh filed suit against Harrison, accusing him of negotiating the Treaty of Fort Wayne to enrich himself. Harrison did indeed benefit economically from the Treaty, but that was actually standard operating procedure at that time.

B. Emergence of an Independent Legislature--during the early years of the Territorial Legislature, members were easily convinced by Harrison to vote according to his policies and proposals. As his political base shrank, however, more opponents found their way into the legislature, and Harrison found it increasingly more difficult to persuade them to follow his lead.

C. Greater Influence of the Prophet--the Treaty of Ft. Wayne so inflamed Native Americans that the Shawnee Prophet was once again successful in gaining adherents to his cause.

1. Prophet's Inability to Control all Native American groups--As we will see in greater detail below, Harrison used reports of Native American depredations in the Illinois treaty to persuade his superiors that action needed to be taken against Prophetstown to ensure the attacks stopped--even though those Native Americans were not under the control of Tenskwatawa or Tecumseh.



2. Harrison attempts to intimidate Tenskwataw and Tecumseh



II. The Coming Conflict

A. Harrison and the Effort to increase his popularity--with the legislature in session, and no longer willing to rubber stamp all of Harrison's proposals, Harrison seems to have felt that it was necessary to abandon diplomacy and take up war. Harrison continually during 1810 and 1811 sent letters to his superiors in government of reports that the forces from Prophetstown was soon be invading Vincennes

B. Tecumseh's Return to Vincennes--in mid-summer of 1811, Tecumseh sent word to Harrison that he would be visiting Vincennes in the near future.



1. Tenskwatawa's Salt Blunder--Tecumseh made this trip to Vincennes in part to smooth Harrison's ruffled feather. Tenskwatawa seized an entire salt shipment to help feed all of the people that were showing up in Prophetstown. Harrison, of course, seized on this opportunity to send off an angry message to that village.

2. Tecumseh and Harrison, Round 2



3. Tecumseh Announces His Southern Trip.

C. Harrison Moves Up the Wabash--Harrison, determined to strike against Prophetstown while Tecumseh was away. In part, this was because Harrison had so little regard for the leadership capabilities of Tenskwatawa, and despite the high regard that a number of Native Americans held for him.



1. We Shall Remain clip.

2. Harrison claims victory



3. Prophetstown Rises from the Ashes

Written Assignment 12-Alternative

The documents presented in class during last week concentrated on the reasons for conflict between whites and Native Americans. After reading the appropriate sections of the documents, what explains the reasons for this conflict? Cite appropriate passages to strengthen your argument. This 2-3 page paper is due at the beginning of class next Tuesday, April 17.

Tecumseh the Diplomat

I. Tenskwatawa, Tecumseh, and Traditional Shawnee Roles

A. War chiefs and diplomacy--in traditional Shawnee culture--as in many other traditional native cultures--the war chief was usually in charge of diplomatic efforts; it was, after all, usually only necessary to obtain allies when one was threatened with war.

Excerpt from Benjamin Drake, The Life of Tecumseh and of His Brother the Prophet


B. Tecumseh and his diplomatic mission--Tecumseh spoke to a wide variety of Native American groups, attempting to convince them to join the confederacy at Prophetstown. While he was able to convince a number of young warriors, older chiefs and sachems were less reluctant to move there, undoubtedly worried about what their role would be there upon arrival.

1.The Travels of Tecumseh--Tecumseh travelled far and wide to make diplomatic overtures to other Native American groups to join the confederacy at Prophetstown. We know that Tecumseh had contact with the Iowa people and Lakota people in the west, and also with some Cherokee peoples in the south (including a number of dissident groups like the Creeks and Red Sticks) in the south. Many of these people the Shawnee had previous contact with in their peripetic travels before their return to Ohio in historic times. Again, these efforts met with some mixed success; Tecumseh was successful in persuading many young warriors to join the effort, but had little success in convincing whole villages to relocate to Prophetstown.

II. The Growing Fear

A. White Sense of Unease--Although depradations on the part of Native Americans was reduced under the influence of Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh, whites were on edge because of the great numbers of Native Americans taking up temporary (and sometimes permanent) residence there. This fear led Harrison to attempt to defuse the situation (one, in part, of his own making).

1. Harrison's communications with the government in Washington--Harrison spent a good portion of 1810 sending communications to Washington to attempt to persuade officials there of the danger that the brothers presented to whites in the region, which is exemplified by the following passages from Harrison's Messages and Letters



2. Harrison's communications with Prophetstown--Harrison attempted to intimidate the brothers by intimating that the US government could easily raise a force that could overwhelm the Native American contingent at Prophetstown.



B. The Prophetstown response--although we've already looked at the speech of Tecumseh last week, this is probably a good time to examine it once again, since it is obvious that Tecumseh fears little that Harrison presents:



C. Beating the drums of war--Harrison, recognizing the reluctance of the American government to act as long as the Native Americans at Prophetstown remained peaceful, began to play up the conflicts between whites and natives, and the continually insist that the Prophet was a grave danger to settlers along the lower Great Lakes.



1. Tecumseh attempts to maintain peace--

Written Assignment 12

This week's lectures revolved around the idea of adaptability in the face of change. Citing at least to examples from the source material used in class, how did Tenskwatawa attempt to adapt his message to meet the challenges to his leadership. Was he successful? Why or why not. Your 2-3 page answer is due next Thursday, April 12, at the beginning of class.

The Second Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)

The year 1809 started badly of William Henry Harrison. The western region of the Territory of Indiana, tired of Harrison's high-handedness in the political arena, petitioned the federal government to be separated from Indiana; this meant that Indiana would not become a state in 1810, and that Harrison's political career was essentially stalled. The territorial legislature was becoming more independent, and harder for Harrison to control, as well.  For Tenskwatawa, on the other hand, 1809 started out well. His nemesis William Wells was dismissed as Indian agent at Fort Wayne, and his negotiations the previous summer and fall with Harrison had resulted in his gaining a large share of the stipend that had been exclusively the domain of Black Hoof at Wapakoneta. In 1809, after the Quaker William Kirk, was forced to leave the settlement at Wapakoneta, Black Hoof saw very little of the stipend promised the Shawnees.

I. Settlement at Prophetstown

A. Harsh Winter of 1808-1809--the winter of 1808-1809 was particularly harsh; William Well reported that snow 3 feet deep covered most everything, and that natives had been forced to eat nearly all of their cows and horses, because they could not hunt, and that they had consumed almost all of their corn from the fall harvest.

1. Continued boycott--Jefferson's boycott, begun the previous year, had failed to effect British trade much at all--except that it made prices for goods in the interior of the United States much more costly, and made it very difficult for both whites and Native Americans to obtain these trade goods

B. Sources of information--ironically, although Prophetstown was closer to Vincennes than Greenville was, gathering reliable information about the settlement at Prophetstown was more difficult for Harrison--and for historians. In part, this was due to Prophetstown being ensconced in a region where Native Americans were more sympathetic to his message--Tenskwatawa did not have to battle with an influential accommodationist chief like Black Hoof feeding information to white government officials. But it does seem that falling out of favor with the Ojibwas, the Ottowas, and the Pottowatomies also effected Tenskwatawa's influence adversely, and therefore our information about him and his settlement.

1. Threat of Indian attack--Michigan territorial governor William Hull reported that the three nations--Ojibwas, Ottawas, and Pottowatomies--were planning a coordinated attack on Prophetstown in retaliation for the events that occurred there in the fall and early winter of 1808.



Harrison was receiving conflicting information, and sending conflicting reports back to Washington. This made the federal government leery of negotiating further land concessions from Native peoples during this part of the year--another frustration for Harrison, as he saw these negotiations as a way to firm up support by whites in the territory, and a way to attract more white settlers to the region.

C. Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)--hoping to take advantage of what he perceived to be the Prophet's diminishing influence, and to regain political momentum, Harrison negotiated a new treaty in the fall of 1809--despite constant appeals from the Prophet warning against such a move. Harrison also had to overcome a great resistance among many other native peoples, as well. Miami leader Little Turtle, a prominent accommodationist, was losing influence. A rival Miami chief, who we know as Owl, insisted that the Indians should receive $2 per acre for any land concession--the going price at resale. After strenuous negotiations, hundreds of gallons of whisky, and a promise that the Miami would receive twice what other native peoples received, Harrison was able to secure signatures of a handful of minor chiefs to this treaty.


D. Native Reaction--not surprisingly (to us, anyway--Harrison seems somewhat surprised), Native Americans returned to the message of the Prophet, and the population at Prophetstown again began growing.

E. Harrison's Appeal to Tenskwatawa--Harrison reacted against what he saw was the rehabilitation of Tenskwatawa by attempting to downplay the conflict--but emphasizing the numerical superiority of US forces.

F. Tecumseh Comes to Vincennes--in what I interpret as a serious change to negotiating strategy, Tecumseh travelled with a party of Native Americans to attempt to negotiate with Harrison.

Harrison and Tenskwatawa

I. Organizing Everyday Life at Prophetstown

A. The Village--or, perhaps more appropriately, the villages. Dwellings were set up in a grid pattern, in the European (or American) pattern, and the dwellings themselves utilized both traditional Native American styles and European styles. There was also a kind of temporary shelter for short-term visitors (called the Strangers' House), a granary, and a lodge for the Prophet to commune with the Great Spirit.

B. Popularity of Prophet's Message--the move to Prophetstown did nothing to diminish the popularity of the Prophet's message; in fact, its appeal to western Native Americans created a greater popularity. By 1810, there were probably more than 6,000 people living in the town--which meant that the largest city in the interior of the country outside of New Orleans was an Indian town. This popularity put even greater stress upon finding a way to feed all of the visitors, however, and in the short run undermined the Prophet's message.

1. Lack of Food--the huge numbers of people flocking to Prophetstown meant that food was perpetually in short supply. For those arriving later in the fall of 1808, this left them more susceptible to diseases. Losses were particularly heavy for the Ojibway, Ottowas, and Pottawatomies--but, surprisingly, affected relatively few Shawnee. This led the people who suffered the heaviest losses to suspect the Prophet of practicing some kind of witchcraft on them, and in the spring they fled Prophetstown, moving back to their home villages where they began to undermine the Prophet with their suspicions.


2. Harrison's Reappraisal--despite his lingering suspicions, upon meeting Tenskwatawa Harrison was surprisingly impressed. This was especially true after Harrison witnessed Tenskwatawa preaching (although Harrison was not converted, and in fact attempted to explain Christianity in more detail to the Prophet--at least, as he practiced Christianity)


3. Native Challenge to the Prophet's Authority--several of these new non-believers returned to Prophetstown to directly challenge the Prophet. Finding a Shawnee woman and child outside the confines of the settlement, they murdered and scalped them, to challenge Tenskwatawa's contention that he and the Great Spirit would prevent any harm coming to the residents of Prophetstown.


4. Harrison's Lingering Doubts-despite his initial favorable impression, Harrison continued to believe that Tenskwatawa was plotting with the British to create a buffer state in the Great Lakes region.


5. US Indian Policy Subverts Peace Efforts--Historians of late have placed much blame on Harrison for the continued hostility between the United States and Native Americans in the Great Lakes region--but it was in fact the policies of the United States that caused this rift.

The Move to Prophetstown

I. Greenville

A. Stirring white fears--the large numbers of Native Americans coming from all around the Great Lakes region to Greenville caused a great deal of concern to whites who were living nearby. The pressure these whites put on politicians in Ohio caused greater friction between the Native Americans and the Ohio government, and in part necessitated finding a more accommodating  place to live.

1. Little armed conflict--it should be noted that, although we know that Tenskwatawa preached that whites should be avoided, and in the future removed from Indian lands by the Great Spirit, at the same time he advocated no violence against whites. Despite the hostility to whites displayed in Tenskwatawa's theology, at the same time he expected that the Great Spirit would eventually intervene to remove the whites--if Native Americans returned to traditional ways of living.

2. Intervention by the Great Spirit--Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh both held that they chose to move the location of their village because the Great Spirit told Tenskwatawa to do so.

II. Prophetstown

A. Invitation from Main Poc--Tenskwatawa moved to the Tippecanoe Creek in part because the Great Spirit induced the Potawatomi leader known as Main Poc to invite him to settle on land he gave the group.

1. Main Poc--like both Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh, Main Poc spent much of his time plotting and carrying out plots to stop further white encroachments on Native American land. Main Poc (the name is suppose to be French for "withered hand"--Main Poc's left hand was deformed, having no fingers nor thumb) had little else in common with the brothers, however. Besides being a great war leader and sachem of the Potawatomi's, Main Poc was also a wabeno--one who could change into an animal, and who could carry out black magic. Main Poc also claimed that the Great Spirit had told him that he should continue to regularly get drunk, and to have sex with as many women as he could, as well. Despite these doctrinal differences, Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh were willing to take on Main Poc as an ally, and to accept his invitation to move.

2. Move close to allies--the move to the Tippecanoe Creek also allowed Tenskwatawa to move closer to those most receptive to his message--Native Americans west of the Wabash River. This would not only bring him more converts, but also provide a greater number of warriors to call upon if the new settlement should come under attack.

3. Command of transportation resources--Prophetstown was on the Tippecanoe Creek, which was a tributary of the Wabash River. With no roads, it was faster to canoe a river than to walk or ride horseback if one had to cover any distance.

4. Site of previous settlement--as we will see in the document presented below, this was also the site of another Native American village. The document linked to is from American State Papers, Indian Affairs Volume 1, pages 131-135, published in 1835

 

Written Assignment 11

After reading the document presented March 27 in class (pages 395-403 of John Lambert's Travels through lower Canada, and the United States of North America, in the years 1806, 1807, and 1808 : to which are added, biographical notices and anecdotes of some of the leading characters in the United States : and those who have, at various periods, borne a conspicuous part in the politics of that country ), answer the following question: This account was supposedly given to Lambert by an unnamed source--how have historians come to the conclusion that it is a reasonably accurate description of Tenskwatawa's beliefs? You may want to consult the bibliographies of your textbooks before formulating you answer to this question. Your response (a 2-3 page paper, double-spaced with conventional 1 inch margins) is due on Tuesday, April 3.

Tenskwatawa and His Acolytes

I. Religious Innovations

A. The Creation of Ritual--Shawnees, like many native peoples, used ritual to create a sense of sacredness in places. Tenskwatawa created several new rituals, which both enhanced his message and his status as a "holy man."

1. The Establishment of Patriarchy--although in many ways the Prophet called for a return to traditional Native ways of living, at the same time he sought to limit the political influence of woman in Native society. He did away with the women's council at Greenville, which had in the past been a way of dampening war enthusiasm. This shifted greater power to warriors, which in turn undermined the power of traditional leaders.

2. Public Confession of Sin--one of the first things Tenskwatawa demanded of his followers was that they make a public confession of their sins, or wrong-doing, and to beg for forgiveness from the Great Spirit

3. Offering Regular Prayers to the Great Spirit--Tenskwatawa also demanded that his followers offer daily prayers t the Great Spirit--and only to him. Before the Prophet's movement, most Natives would have asked for intercession from their guardian spirit, which they first perceived on their dream quest.

a. The emphasis on the powers of the Great Spirit were also quite new; traditional Shawnee beliefs held that the Great Spirit (or Master of Life) needed the assistance of other spirits in order to maintain the earth in balance. Traditional beliefs had emphasized the Great Spirit's fallibility--for instance, the Great Spirit needed three tries to locate the genitalia of human beings.

4. Keep an eternal flame--another return to traditional practice. Eternal flames were kept for both ritualistic practice, and because it was easier to start a fire in a new place to live from the glowing embers of an old fire than starting from scratch. It was also a means of bring along something of a former residence that had a spiritual resonance to the new settlement.

5. The Use of Prayer Beads--missionaries were sent to other villages with prayer beads that these missionaries claimed were made from the flesh of the Prophet, and therefore were they next best thing to actually having the Prophet come visit the village. These prayer beads were another appropriation from European religion, since they resembled the rosary of the Roman Catholic faith tradition.

6. Ritual as a Means of Accessing Sacred Power--Tenskwatawa's proscriptions against contact with whites resonated with traditional native practices of avoiding acts that displeased certain spirits. This is another reason why Tenskwatawa's call to break-off contact with whites struck such a strong chord with a number of Native American groups.

7. Tenskwatawa's appearance--when the Prophet appeared in Greenville, he looked very much like a traditional shaman, and regularly preached for extended periods of time with no rest, nourishment, nor drink--that certainly made it seem to followers that he was a true believer in what he was preaching, which was probably the case. This appearance also reinforced the belief that he was a powerful shaman in other Native Americans, as well.

II. The Prophet's Acolytes

A. Beata--Although she rose to prominence among her people the Delaware (o Lenai Lenape) just before the white awareness of Tenskwatawa, Beata was probably actually an early convert to the doctrines that the Prophet was teaching; in fact, it may have been through her recommendation that the Prophet was sent for.

B. Le Maigouis (the Trout)--Recently, historians have compared Le Maigouis favorably to the Christian St. Paul, the disciple of Jesus who worked very hard to convert Gentiles to the religion of the Jewish messiah. It is through his travels that we've come to know the doctrines of the Prophet:


C. Tecumseh?--this argument has not yet emerged, but Tecumseh acts very much like one of the above mentioned missionaries on his trip south to attempt to persuade Native Americans there to join the new Native confederacy.

Written Assignment 10

Much of the conflict between Native Americans and white settlers in the Northwest Territory was caused by the land hunger of these settlers, and the Native reluctance to continue to accede (give in to) that hunger--in large part, because experience taught them that that hunger was insatiable. Yet nowhere in William Henry Harrison's voluminous correspondence is this acknowledged as a factor in the conflicts with the Natives. What are the possible explanations for this fact? Your response should take the form of a 2-3 page paper, double-spaced with conventional 1 inch margins, and is due at the beginning of class on Thursday, March 29.

Harrison's Bad Birds

I. The Growing Threat from Greenville

A. Native Dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Fort Wayne

1. Harrison's Response


B. Alarming Reports from William Wells

C. Wells Recommends Forcing the Prophet to Move--And Convinces Harrison


D. Harrison Demand that the Chiefs of the Shawnee Remove the Prophet


E. The Prophet's Response

Weekly Assignment 9a

This assignment deals largely with the Treaty of Greenville, which you can reference back to by following the provided link. The Treaty of Greenville, signed in 1795, has been recently judged as the major turning point in the relationship between whites and Native Americans, because it recognized the victory of US forces under Anthony Wayne over the confederated forces of various native groups at Fallen Timbers. This relationship now recognized the "inevitability" of white rule over the entire Northwest Territory, and the diminished role Native Americans would play in the region. Is this judgement historically accurate? Why, or why not? Your answer should be a 2-3 page paper, double-spaced with conventional 1 inch margins, and is due at the beginning of class on Thursday, March 29 (or, sometime before the end of the semester).

Harrison and Tenskwatawa

I. Harrison Rules Indiana

A. Harrison's Early life

1. Virginia boyhood--The Harrisons were one of Virginia's elite families and close friends of the Washingtons. The Declaration of Independence bears the signature of William's father, Benjamin, who served three terms as governor of Virginia. Harrison's mother, Elizabeth Bassett Harrison, hailed from one of the colony's earliest and most prestigious families. It is likely that some of Harrison's memories were of his parents talking about General Washington and his marathon struggle against England. After all, the family plantation lay just thirty miles from Yorktown, at the base of the peninsula where Washington trapped Cornwallis's army in the battle that sealed the British fate in the Revolutionary War. Doubtless the eight-year-old boy hailed the passing Continental troops, stared in awe at the great man leading them, thrilled at the news of the siege of Yorktown, and celebrated when word came of the British surrender.

2. Primogeniture--Harrison was the youngest of seven children, which under the laws and customs of the day limited his prospects. A family's property usually went to the eldest son, with younger male siblings entering the military, clergy, or trade. It was plain to Harrison early in life that he would have to learn self-sufficiency. It was equally plain he was ambitious. The boy enjoyed a solid education—tutored at home, then three years at Hampden-Sydney College in Hanover County, Virginia. Benjamin Harrison wanted his youngest child to be a doctor and sent him to Philadelphia to study under the tutelage of renowned physician Benjamin Rush. In 1791, however, Harrison's father died, leaving virtually all his estate to his older brothers. Short of money and not enthusiastic about a career in medicine, the young man quickly left medical school to pursue the military career he had always wanted.

B. Rapid Rise in the Military--Virtually all of Harrison's life, there had been armed conflict somewhere in America—the Revolution, skirmishes with Native Americans, land disputes with the Spanish and French. The military offered an opportunity for a bright, aspiring young man to make a name for himself. Soon after leaving medical studies, Harrison used his family's connections with the Lee and Washington families to procure an officer's rank in an infantry division. The eighteen-year-old Harrison rounded up about eighty thrill-seekers and troublemakers off Philadelphia's streets, talked them into signing enlistment papers, and marched them to his assigned post, Fort Washington in the Northwest Territory.

1. Wayne's aide-de-camp--The young man had entered the army as an ensign, the lowest officer's rank, but he made a strong impression and quickly won promotion to lieutenant. The fort's commander, General Anthony Wayne, made the handsome, polished Harrison his aide after a little more than a year of service there. Wayne commanded Fort Washington, near present-day Cincinnati—an installation established to protect settlers against Native Americans and the British agents who incited them. By 1794, matters had reached the boiling point, and General Wayne readied the fort for a large-scale assault by Indian forces. Harrison fought bravely and well, winning a citation from General Wayne for his valor: "I must add the name of my faithful and gallant Aide-de-camp . . . Lieutenant Harrison, who . . . rendered the most essential service by communicating my orders in every direction . . . conduct and bravery exciting the troops to press for victory." The rousing victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers ended the strong Native American presence in that part of the Northwest Territory, opening it for colonization. After Wayne's death in 1795, Captain Harrison took command of Fort Washington.

C. Harrison Moves Into Politics--Newcomers to the area near Fort Washington included twenty-year-old Anna Symmes. Her father had just been appointed judge for the region. Anna was quickly smitten by the handsome young officer, but her father disapproved, thinking his daughter could make a richer match elsewhere. The young couple waited until Anna's father had to travel to another part of the territory; when he did, they found a justice of the peace and eloped. When Judge Symmes returned and learned of the marriage, he shouted at Harrison, "How, sir, do you intend to support my daughter?" The soldier coolly replied, "Sir, my sword is my means of support."

1. Military Career Ends--For Harrison, the marriage was politically astute. The Symmes family had inside connections with the local land speculators, something the new son-in-law exploited. By 1798, Captain Harrison saw the army as a career dead end and resigned his commission. His father-in-law still saw little in Harrison to be impressed with, writing a friend, "He can neither bleed, plead, nor preach, and if he could plow I should be satisfied." Finally, the judge used his contacts in Washington. The new President, John Adams, named Harrison secretary of the Northwest Territory. In 1799, the territory could send a delegate to the United States Congress for the first time, and Harrison was elected to fill the post. He played expertly to the voters by reforming land-buying policies allowing only large purchases. These enabled cash-strapped settlers to buy smaller lots on four-year installment plans.


2. Territorial Governor--By 1800, the Harrisons had three of what would eventually be ten children, although only four would live to see their father in the White House. That year the Northwest Territory split into what were known as the Ohio and Indiana Territories, and President Adams named Harrison governor of the latter. This region was comprised of what would later be all or sections of Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Harrison built a palatial home he called "Grouseland" near his headquarters in Vincennes. The home came to be a political focal point for the territory, frequently hosting officials, friends, and meetings with Native Americans.

a. Harrison the Autocrat--as Territorial Governor, Harrison brooked little dissent. In the early years of his term in office, he had no territorial legislature to deal with. As the Indiana Territory became more populous (the Indiana Territory at this time included the present states of Indiana and Illinois), Harrison was able to maintain control by fixing elections, and using the patronage and economic powers of his office to ensure a compliant legislature. Eventually, dissatisfaction with Harrison's autocratic rule led people in the western part of the territory to petition to become a separate territory--and eventually the state of Illinois.

3. Governor and Land-Grabber--William Henry Harrison served as governor of the Indiana Territory for twelve years. He speculated in land, invested in two mill enterprises, and had a reputation as an honest administrator. To his credit, he was instrumental in improving the roads and other infrastructure in the region. However, the primary task charged to him by Presidents Adams and Jefferson was to secure legal claims to as much territorial land from Native Americans as possible.
To many Native Americans of that era, the idea of owning land was a completely alien concept. To claim sole right to a plot of land seemed as absurd as claiming sole right to the air. Harrison took advantage of the Indians' communal approach to territory. The governor pushed through seven treaties with Indians from 1802 through 1805, most shamefully exploitative of Native American poverty, corrupt leadership, or inability to hold liquor. This culminated in late 1805 with a massive, largely fraudulent landgrab of 51 million acres. Harrison and his aides warmly received five minor chiefs from the Sac tribe, softened them up with alcohol, then persuaded them to sign away one-third of modern Illinois, as well as sizable chunks of Wisconsin and Missouri, for one penny per two hundred acres.

II. United States Foreign Relations
 

A. France--Relations between the US and France remained cordial after the American Revolution, and even after the French Revolution--particularly when Thomas Jefferson, a francophile, was president. The relationship cooled somewhat, however, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power, as many perceived him as betraying the spirit of the Revolution. The prowess of the French military under Bonaparte's leadership also created a great deal of tension in Europe, particularly with the British, who feared the result of France becoming a greater continental power.
 
B. Great Britain--while many British elites were convinced that the United States would collapse given enough time, they were unwilling to spend much money or effort causing this inevitability to speed up. Events on the European continent were much more worrisome to the British government than the goings on in North America--although the idle threats of a US invasion of Canada were of some concern.

1. Impressment of sailors--the naval power that Great Britain possessed is what allowed the country to remain the premier global power--but to maintain that superiority, the Royal Navy required around 30,000 sailors a year. To maintain that "recruitment" pace, Royal naval officers often had to resort to what we would today term "extra-legal" methods (indeed, many people at the time claimed these methods were extra-legal), by claiming any sailor or British citizen currently sailing was liable to impressment, or serving involuntarily, in the Royal British Navy.

2. Jefferson's Embargo--in 1807, with the impressment crisis at its height, Jefferson responded to the crisis by closing all US ports to all foreign trade, relying (once again) upon his vision of the self-sufficient yeoman farmer, who would raise the crops that his family needed, and to provide himself and his neighbors with goods to trade, as well.

a. Embargo is a failure--this vision did not, of course, actually work. Americans gained goods clandestinely from merchants in Canada, and from other places, as well.

b. The Embargo and Indian Relations--America traders were but at a disadvantage because of this embargo, since they had far fewer goods to trade with Native Americans for animal pelts--and drove many natives to turn once again to British traders from Canada. Ironically, Jefferson's embargo also strengthened the hand of the Shawnee Prophet; with fewer trade goods obtainable, the temptation to trade with the Americans was greatly reduced, and it became easier to trod the path required by the Great Spirit. It also appeared to many Americans that the natives were doing more than merely trading with the British, and were instead plotting with the British to prevent further American expansion.

Weekly Assignment 8

With the emphasis this course has placed upon the political aspects of Tenskwatawa's movement, its religious component has largely been overlooked. However, the movement was mostly a call for spiritual renewal--and it took place during the Second Great Awakening, a call for spiritual renewal on the part of other people in the United States. And while William Henry Harrison scoffed at Tenskwatawa's religion, other non-Native Americans were greatly impressed with his religious commitment--like those who reported on the movement in the document discussed in class today. What do you think accounts for this difference in perception? What were its consequences? This should take the form of a 2-3 page paper, double-spaced, with conventional 1 inch margins, and is due next Thursday, March 22.

Religious Life at Greenville

I. Tenskwatawa and Religious Practice--At the time Tenskwatawa was developing his following, the United States in general was in the throes of a religious revival known as the Second Great Awakening. This religious revival was particularly prevalent on the frontier, as we will see below

A. The Doctrine of the Great Spirit--Tenskwatawa commanded that Native Americans give up many of their spiritual practices and follow the doctrine that was given to him by the Great Spirit.

1. Call to give up sacred bundles--Most Shawnee men (and other Native American men, as well), made up bundles that were revealed to them by their guiding spirits, which acted to bring them good fortune while hunting or at war. These bundles, they believed, were also valuable sources for witchcraft.

a. Natives believed, it should be noted, that witchcraft could be used for both good and evil--most believed that the power itself was not evil, but could become so if the person using this power abused it. Tenskwatawa preached that witchcraft was itself evil, and had to be given up.

b. The controversy over the sacred bundles was probably the least successful aspect of Tenskwatawa's preaching. Warriors were reluctant to give up these bundles, because they believed these bundles protected them on the battlefield, and brought them good fortune on the hunt.

2. Call to worship only the Great Spirit--this was another break with Native American tradition--although by the time Tenskwatawa begins advocating this, most Native Americans would have been familiar with the doctrine to worship only one god through their exposure to Christianity. Tenskwatawa also preached that the Great Spirit created all of the people of the earth (that he knew of, anyway)--and that the black people, the red people, and the white people had all been given land upon which to subsist. The white people, who Tenskwatawa also preached were the spawn of the Great Serpent, were attempting to expropriate lands that belonged to both Africans and Native Americans.

a. This is yet another break with traditional religious practice. Before the rise of prophets like Tenskwatawa, Native Americans did not really worship their supreme being. They acknowledged the role such an entity played in creating life on earth, but after that happened stories about these beings largely disappeared. This seems to be another instance when Tenskwatawa is appropriating certain tenets of Christianity for his own purposes.

b. As opposed to the demand that warriors give up their magic bundles, this tenet of Tenskwatawa's religion was exceedingly popular. Like several of the prophets who came before him, explaining that the Great Spirit in fact created all the peoples of the earth, and chose to create the Shawnee first--in Tenskwatawa's perception of the world. Whites, as I mentioned above, were thought to be from the spawn of the serpent, and therefore evil.

3. Monogamous Marital Practices--in many Native American society, a man could have multiple wive at the same time. Dissolution of the marriage was also very simple and straight forward--to end their marriage, they simply stopped living together as husband and wife. Tenskwatawa preached that natives were suppose to give up this traditional practice, and take up the marital practices of the whites, instead.

B. Creating Sacred Space--Tenskwatawa's village near Greenville to on a new role--it was a sacred place for many Native peoples, much like Vatican City serves as the space that the Roman Catholic look on as the home of their religious leader on earth, the pope. In fact, Tenskwatawa's village consisted almost entirely of sacred ground; various native groups who migrated to Greenville to listen to Tenskwatawa speak actually lived in their own temporary village nearby, where they erected temporary shelters (much like Native groups did at places like the Glaize).

1. The Longhouse Church--the main area for worship was a large structure that witnesses said was at least 150 feet long. Each evening, the Prophet appeared in this structure, and preached to the gathered masses. Although not physically imposing, or attractive, when Tenskwatawa spoke on these occasions, witnesses found him mesmerizing.

The Prophet's Village at Greenville

I. Move from the White River Villages

A. Harrison's Land Grab

This is an early example of William Henry Harrison's commitment to acquire as much land in the west as was feasible, and which set Native Americans in the west on edge, as it became apparent that the Americans were determined to take as much of their land as they could hold--and made the Prophets message resonate with them more.

B. The Move to Greenville--Although Tenskwatawa maintained that he established his polyglot town in Greenville (meaning that the settlers there came from a wide variety of Native American peoples) at the insistence of the Great Spirit, it is apparent that this moved served his purpose politically, as well. If one were setting up a resistance movement, establishing a settlement where the treaty was signed deeding a large amount of land was ceded certainly makes a great deal of sense. Many Native Americans undoubtedly saw this as a symbolic gesture, meant to indirectly challenge American control over the ceded land.

C. Wells' warning to Harrison about the growing influence of the Prophet.


As has already been alluded to earlier, Wells was an American agent with very close ties to the Miami tribe--he married the daughter of the great Miami war leader, known to us as Little Turtle. Although Harrison was suspicious of Wells, and where his allegiance lie, by 1807 Wells had gained Harrison's trust, and this warning Harrison took very seriously.

C. Evidence of the growing influence of the Prophet (or, as Harrison refers to him in this passage, the Imposter), and Harrison's attempt to counteract that influence.


This is, in many ways, one of the most interesting documents in attempting to understand the relationship between William Henry Harrison and Tenskwatawa. It is usually argued that Tenskwatawa somehow found out about the total eclipse, and then Harrison presents him with this golden opportunity. Yet Tenskwatawa spoke nor understood English, and limited his contact with whites by this time. It has also been argued that Tecumseh, in earlier contact with whites, had learned to read and write English, gotten hold of an almanac, and retained enough knowledge of the coming solar eclipse to remember the date when Harrison challenged the Prophet. If you are persuaded by this, I have a wonderful piece of land I'd like to sell you in Florida, near the waster--see me after class if your interested. Lastly, if this solar eclipse was such a widely known event (it's also been argued that eclipse hunters were traveling around the backwood attempting to find the one best spot from which to view it)--why doesn't Harrison know about it, someone who could read English, and who had a better chance at accessing this information than either Native American brother. I think a more plausible answer lies in acknowledging the serendipity of much of the human condition--pure chance.