The Move to Prophetstown

I. Greenville

A. Stirring white fears--the large numbers of Native Americans coming from all around the Great Lakes region to Greenville caused a great deal of concern to whites who were living nearby. The pressure these whites put on politicians in Ohio caused greater friction between the Native Americans and the Ohio government, and in part necessitated finding a more accommodating  place to live.

1. Little armed conflict--it should be noted that, although we know that Tenskwatawa preached that whites should be avoided, and in the future removed from Indian lands by the Great Spirit, at the same time he advocated no violence against whites. Despite the hostility to whites displayed in Tenskwatawa's theology, at the same time he expected that the Great Spirit would eventually intervene to remove the whites--if Native Americans returned to traditional ways of living.

2. Intervention by the Great Spirit--Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh both held that they chose to move the location of their village because the Great Spirit told Tenskwatawa to do so.

II. Prophetstown

A. Invitation from Main Poc--Tenskwatawa moved to the Tippecanoe Creek in part because the Great Spirit induced the Potawatomi leader known as Main Poc to invite him to settle on land he gave the group.

1. Main Poc--like both Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh, Main Poc spent much of his time plotting and carrying out plots to stop further white encroachments on Native American land. Main Poc (the name is suppose to be French for "withered hand"--Main Poc's left hand was deformed, having no fingers nor thumb) had little else in common with the brothers, however. Besides being a great war leader and sachem of the Potawatomi's, Main Poc was also a wabeno--one who could change into an animal, and who could carry out black magic. Main Poc also claimed that the Great Spirit had told him that he should continue to regularly get drunk, and to have sex with as many women as he could, as well. Despite these doctrinal differences, Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh were willing to take on Main Poc as an ally, and to accept his invitation to move.

2. Move close to allies--the move to the Tippecanoe Creek also allowed Tenskwatawa to move closer to those most receptive to his message--Native Americans west of the Wabash River. This would not only bring him more converts, but also provide a greater number of warriors to call upon if the new settlement should come under attack.

3. Command of transportation resources--Prophetstown was on the Tippecanoe Creek, which was a tributary of the Wabash River. With no roads, it was faster to canoe a river than to walk or ride horseback if one had to cover any distance.

4. Site of previous settlement--as we will see in the document presented below, this was also the site of another Native American village. The document linked to is from American State Papers, Indian Affairs Volume 1, pages 131-135, published in 1835

 

Written Assignment 11

After reading the document presented March 27 in class (pages 395-403 of John Lambert's Travels through lower Canada, and the United States of North America, in the years 1806, 1807, and 1808 : to which are added, biographical notices and anecdotes of some of the leading characters in the United States : and those who have, at various periods, borne a conspicuous part in the politics of that country ), answer the following question: This account was supposedly given to Lambert by an unnamed source--how have historians come to the conclusion that it is a reasonably accurate description of Tenskwatawa's beliefs? You may want to consult the bibliographies of your textbooks before formulating you answer to this question. Your response (a 2-3 page paper, double-spaced with conventional 1 inch margins) is due on Tuesday, April 3.

Tenskwatawa and His Acolytes

I. Religious Innovations

A. The Creation of Ritual--Shawnees, like many native peoples, used ritual to create a sense of sacredness in places. Tenskwatawa created several new rituals, which both enhanced his message and his status as a "holy man."

1. The Establishment of Patriarchy--although in many ways the Prophet called for a return to traditional Native ways of living, at the same time he sought to limit the political influence of woman in Native society. He did away with the women's council at Greenville, which had in the past been a way of dampening war enthusiasm. This shifted greater power to warriors, which in turn undermined the power of traditional leaders.

2. Public Confession of Sin--one of the first things Tenskwatawa demanded of his followers was that they make a public confession of their sins, or wrong-doing, and to beg for forgiveness from the Great Spirit

3. Offering Regular Prayers to the Great Spirit--Tenskwatawa also demanded that his followers offer daily prayers t the Great Spirit--and only to him. Before the Prophet's movement, most Natives would have asked for intercession from their guardian spirit, which they first perceived on their dream quest.

a. The emphasis on the powers of the Great Spirit were also quite new; traditional Shawnee beliefs held that the Great Spirit (or Master of Life) needed the assistance of other spirits in order to maintain the earth in balance. Traditional beliefs had emphasized the Great Spirit's fallibility--for instance, the Great Spirit needed three tries to locate the genitalia of human beings.

4. Keep an eternal flame--another return to traditional practice. Eternal flames were kept for both ritualistic practice, and because it was easier to start a fire in a new place to live from the glowing embers of an old fire than starting from scratch. It was also a means of bring along something of a former residence that had a spiritual resonance to the new settlement.

5. The Use of Prayer Beads--missionaries were sent to other villages with prayer beads that these missionaries claimed were made from the flesh of the Prophet, and therefore were they next best thing to actually having the Prophet come visit the village. These prayer beads were another appropriation from European religion, since they resembled the rosary of the Roman Catholic faith tradition.

6. Ritual as a Means of Accessing Sacred Power--Tenskwatawa's proscriptions against contact with whites resonated with traditional native practices of avoiding acts that displeased certain spirits. This is another reason why Tenskwatawa's call to break-off contact with whites struck such a strong chord with a number of Native American groups.

7. Tenskwatawa's appearance--when the Prophet appeared in Greenville, he looked very much like a traditional shaman, and regularly preached for extended periods of time with no rest, nourishment, nor drink--that certainly made it seem to followers that he was a true believer in what he was preaching, which was probably the case. This appearance also reinforced the belief that he was a powerful shaman in other Native Americans, as well.

II. The Prophet's Acolytes

A. Beata--Although she rose to prominence among her people the Delaware (o Lenai Lenape) just before the white awareness of Tenskwatawa, Beata was probably actually an early convert to the doctrines that the Prophet was teaching; in fact, it may have been through her recommendation that the Prophet was sent for.

B. Le Maigouis (the Trout)--Recently, historians have compared Le Maigouis favorably to the Christian St. Paul, the disciple of Jesus who worked very hard to convert Gentiles to the religion of the Jewish messiah. It is through his travels that we've come to know the doctrines of the Prophet:


C. Tecumseh?--this argument has not yet emerged, but Tecumseh acts very much like one of the above mentioned missionaries on his trip south to attempt to persuade Native Americans there to join the new Native confederacy.

Written Assignment 10

Much of the conflict between Native Americans and white settlers in the Northwest Territory was caused by the land hunger of these settlers, and the Native reluctance to continue to accede (give in to) that hunger--in large part, because experience taught them that that hunger was insatiable. Yet nowhere in William Henry Harrison's voluminous correspondence is this acknowledged as a factor in the conflicts with the Natives. What are the possible explanations for this fact? Your response should take the form of a 2-3 page paper, double-spaced with conventional 1 inch margins, and is due at the beginning of class on Thursday, March 29.

Harrison's Bad Birds

I. The Growing Threat from Greenville

A. Native Dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Fort Wayne

1. Harrison's Response


B. Alarming Reports from William Wells

C. Wells Recommends Forcing the Prophet to Move--And Convinces Harrison


D. Harrison Demand that the Chiefs of the Shawnee Remove the Prophet


E. The Prophet's Response

Weekly Assignment 9a

This assignment deals largely with the Treaty of Greenville, which you can reference back to by following the provided link. The Treaty of Greenville, signed in 1795, has been recently judged as the major turning point in the relationship between whites and Native Americans, because it recognized the victory of US forces under Anthony Wayne over the confederated forces of various native groups at Fallen Timbers. This relationship now recognized the "inevitability" of white rule over the entire Northwest Territory, and the diminished role Native Americans would play in the region. Is this judgement historically accurate? Why, or why not? Your answer should be a 2-3 page paper, double-spaced with conventional 1 inch margins, and is due at the beginning of class on Thursday, March 29 (or, sometime before the end of the semester).

Harrison and Tenskwatawa

I. Harrison Rules Indiana

A. Harrison's Early life

1. Virginia boyhood--The Harrisons were one of Virginia's elite families and close friends of the Washingtons. The Declaration of Independence bears the signature of William's father, Benjamin, who served three terms as governor of Virginia. Harrison's mother, Elizabeth Bassett Harrison, hailed from one of the colony's earliest and most prestigious families. It is likely that some of Harrison's memories were of his parents talking about General Washington and his marathon struggle against England. After all, the family plantation lay just thirty miles from Yorktown, at the base of the peninsula where Washington trapped Cornwallis's army in the battle that sealed the British fate in the Revolutionary War. Doubtless the eight-year-old boy hailed the passing Continental troops, stared in awe at the great man leading them, thrilled at the news of the siege of Yorktown, and celebrated when word came of the British surrender.

2. Primogeniture--Harrison was the youngest of seven children, which under the laws and customs of the day limited his prospects. A family's property usually went to the eldest son, with younger male siblings entering the military, clergy, or trade. It was plain to Harrison early in life that he would have to learn self-sufficiency. It was equally plain he was ambitious. The boy enjoyed a solid education—tutored at home, then three years at Hampden-Sydney College in Hanover County, Virginia. Benjamin Harrison wanted his youngest child to be a doctor and sent him to Philadelphia to study under the tutelage of renowned physician Benjamin Rush. In 1791, however, Harrison's father died, leaving virtually all his estate to his older brothers. Short of money and not enthusiastic about a career in medicine, the young man quickly left medical school to pursue the military career he had always wanted.

B. Rapid Rise in the Military--Virtually all of Harrison's life, there had been armed conflict somewhere in America—the Revolution, skirmishes with Native Americans, land disputes with the Spanish and French. The military offered an opportunity for a bright, aspiring young man to make a name for himself. Soon after leaving medical studies, Harrison used his family's connections with the Lee and Washington families to procure an officer's rank in an infantry division. The eighteen-year-old Harrison rounded up about eighty thrill-seekers and troublemakers off Philadelphia's streets, talked them into signing enlistment papers, and marched them to his assigned post, Fort Washington in the Northwest Territory.

1. Wayne's aide-de-camp--The young man had entered the army as an ensign, the lowest officer's rank, but he made a strong impression and quickly won promotion to lieutenant. The fort's commander, General Anthony Wayne, made the handsome, polished Harrison his aide after a little more than a year of service there. Wayne commanded Fort Washington, near present-day Cincinnati—an installation established to protect settlers against Native Americans and the British agents who incited them. By 1794, matters had reached the boiling point, and General Wayne readied the fort for a large-scale assault by Indian forces. Harrison fought bravely and well, winning a citation from General Wayne for his valor: "I must add the name of my faithful and gallant Aide-de-camp . . . Lieutenant Harrison, who . . . rendered the most essential service by communicating my orders in every direction . . . conduct and bravery exciting the troops to press for victory." The rousing victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers ended the strong Native American presence in that part of the Northwest Territory, opening it for colonization. After Wayne's death in 1795, Captain Harrison took command of Fort Washington.

C. Harrison Moves Into Politics--Newcomers to the area near Fort Washington included twenty-year-old Anna Symmes. Her father had just been appointed judge for the region. Anna was quickly smitten by the handsome young officer, but her father disapproved, thinking his daughter could make a richer match elsewhere. The young couple waited until Anna's father had to travel to another part of the territory; when he did, they found a justice of the peace and eloped. When Judge Symmes returned and learned of the marriage, he shouted at Harrison, "How, sir, do you intend to support my daughter?" The soldier coolly replied, "Sir, my sword is my means of support."

1. Military Career Ends--For Harrison, the marriage was politically astute. The Symmes family had inside connections with the local land speculators, something the new son-in-law exploited. By 1798, Captain Harrison saw the army as a career dead end and resigned his commission. His father-in-law still saw little in Harrison to be impressed with, writing a friend, "He can neither bleed, plead, nor preach, and if he could plow I should be satisfied." Finally, the judge used his contacts in Washington. The new President, John Adams, named Harrison secretary of the Northwest Territory. In 1799, the territory could send a delegate to the United States Congress for the first time, and Harrison was elected to fill the post. He played expertly to the voters by reforming land-buying policies allowing only large purchases. These enabled cash-strapped settlers to buy smaller lots on four-year installment plans.


2. Territorial Governor--By 1800, the Harrisons had three of what would eventually be ten children, although only four would live to see their father in the White House. That year the Northwest Territory split into what were known as the Ohio and Indiana Territories, and President Adams named Harrison governor of the latter. This region was comprised of what would later be all or sections of Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Harrison built a palatial home he called "Grouseland" near his headquarters in Vincennes. The home came to be a political focal point for the territory, frequently hosting officials, friends, and meetings with Native Americans.

a. Harrison the Autocrat--as Territorial Governor, Harrison brooked little dissent. In the early years of his term in office, he had no territorial legislature to deal with. As the Indiana Territory became more populous (the Indiana Territory at this time included the present states of Indiana and Illinois), Harrison was able to maintain control by fixing elections, and using the patronage and economic powers of his office to ensure a compliant legislature. Eventually, dissatisfaction with Harrison's autocratic rule led people in the western part of the territory to petition to become a separate territory--and eventually the state of Illinois.

3. Governor and Land-Grabber--William Henry Harrison served as governor of the Indiana Territory for twelve years. He speculated in land, invested in two mill enterprises, and had a reputation as an honest administrator. To his credit, he was instrumental in improving the roads and other infrastructure in the region. However, the primary task charged to him by Presidents Adams and Jefferson was to secure legal claims to as much territorial land from Native Americans as possible.
To many Native Americans of that era, the idea of owning land was a completely alien concept. To claim sole right to a plot of land seemed as absurd as claiming sole right to the air. Harrison took advantage of the Indians' communal approach to territory. The governor pushed through seven treaties with Indians from 1802 through 1805, most shamefully exploitative of Native American poverty, corrupt leadership, or inability to hold liquor. This culminated in late 1805 with a massive, largely fraudulent landgrab of 51 million acres. Harrison and his aides warmly received five minor chiefs from the Sac tribe, softened them up with alcohol, then persuaded them to sign away one-third of modern Illinois, as well as sizable chunks of Wisconsin and Missouri, for one penny per two hundred acres.

II. United States Foreign Relations
 

A. France--Relations between the US and France remained cordial after the American Revolution, and even after the French Revolution--particularly when Thomas Jefferson, a francophile, was president. The relationship cooled somewhat, however, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power, as many perceived him as betraying the spirit of the Revolution. The prowess of the French military under Bonaparte's leadership also created a great deal of tension in Europe, particularly with the British, who feared the result of France becoming a greater continental power.
 
B. Great Britain--while many British elites were convinced that the United States would collapse given enough time, they were unwilling to spend much money or effort causing this inevitability to speed up. Events on the European continent were much more worrisome to the British government than the goings on in North America--although the idle threats of a US invasion of Canada were of some concern.

1. Impressment of sailors--the naval power that Great Britain possessed is what allowed the country to remain the premier global power--but to maintain that superiority, the Royal Navy required around 30,000 sailors a year. To maintain that "recruitment" pace, Royal naval officers often had to resort to what we would today term "extra-legal" methods (indeed, many people at the time claimed these methods were extra-legal), by claiming any sailor or British citizen currently sailing was liable to impressment, or serving involuntarily, in the Royal British Navy.

2. Jefferson's Embargo--in 1807, with the impressment crisis at its height, Jefferson responded to the crisis by closing all US ports to all foreign trade, relying (once again) upon his vision of the self-sufficient yeoman farmer, who would raise the crops that his family needed, and to provide himself and his neighbors with goods to trade, as well.

a. Embargo is a failure--this vision did not, of course, actually work. Americans gained goods clandestinely from merchants in Canada, and from other places, as well.

b. The Embargo and Indian Relations--America traders were but at a disadvantage because of this embargo, since they had far fewer goods to trade with Native Americans for animal pelts--and drove many natives to turn once again to British traders from Canada. Ironically, Jefferson's embargo also strengthened the hand of the Shawnee Prophet; with fewer trade goods obtainable, the temptation to trade with the Americans was greatly reduced, and it became easier to trod the path required by the Great Spirit. It also appeared to many Americans that the natives were doing more than merely trading with the British, and were instead plotting with the British to prevent further American expansion.

Weekly Assignment 8

With the emphasis this course has placed upon the political aspects of Tenskwatawa's movement, its religious component has largely been overlooked. However, the movement was mostly a call for spiritual renewal--and it took place during the Second Great Awakening, a call for spiritual renewal on the part of other people in the United States. And while William Henry Harrison scoffed at Tenskwatawa's religion, other non-Native Americans were greatly impressed with his religious commitment--like those who reported on the movement in the document discussed in class today. What do you think accounts for this difference in perception? What were its consequences? This should take the form of a 2-3 page paper, double-spaced, with conventional 1 inch margins, and is due next Thursday, March 22.

Religious Life at Greenville

I. Tenskwatawa and Religious Practice--At the time Tenskwatawa was developing his following, the United States in general was in the throes of a religious revival known as the Second Great Awakening. This religious revival was particularly prevalent on the frontier, as we will see below

A. The Doctrine of the Great Spirit--Tenskwatawa commanded that Native Americans give up many of their spiritual practices and follow the doctrine that was given to him by the Great Spirit.

1. Call to give up sacred bundles--Most Shawnee men (and other Native American men, as well), made up bundles that were revealed to them by their guiding spirits, which acted to bring them good fortune while hunting or at war. These bundles, they believed, were also valuable sources for witchcraft.

a. Natives believed, it should be noted, that witchcraft could be used for both good and evil--most believed that the power itself was not evil, but could become so if the person using this power abused it. Tenskwatawa preached that witchcraft was itself evil, and had to be given up.

b. The controversy over the sacred bundles was probably the least successful aspect of Tenskwatawa's preaching. Warriors were reluctant to give up these bundles, because they believed these bundles protected them on the battlefield, and brought them good fortune on the hunt.

2. Call to worship only the Great Spirit--this was another break with Native American tradition--although by the time Tenskwatawa begins advocating this, most Native Americans would have been familiar with the doctrine to worship only one god through their exposure to Christianity. Tenskwatawa also preached that the Great Spirit created all of the people of the earth (that he knew of, anyway)--and that the black people, the red people, and the white people had all been given land upon which to subsist. The white people, who Tenskwatawa also preached were the spawn of the Great Serpent, were attempting to expropriate lands that belonged to both Africans and Native Americans.

a. This is yet another break with traditional religious practice. Before the rise of prophets like Tenskwatawa, Native Americans did not really worship their supreme being. They acknowledged the role such an entity played in creating life on earth, but after that happened stories about these beings largely disappeared. This seems to be another instance when Tenskwatawa is appropriating certain tenets of Christianity for his own purposes.

b. As opposed to the demand that warriors give up their magic bundles, this tenet of Tenskwatawa's religion was exceedingly popular. Like several of the prophets who came before him, explaining that the Great Spirit in fact created all the peoples of the earth, and chose to create the Shawnee first--in Tenskwatawa's perception of the world. Whites, as I mentioned above, were thought to be from the spawn of the serpent, and therefore evil.

3. Monogamous Marital Practices--in many Native American society, a man could have multiple wive at the same time. Dissolution of the marriage was also very simple and straight forward--to end their marriage, they simply stopped living together as husband and wife. Tenskwatawa preached that natives were suppose to give up this traditional practice, and take up the marital practices of the whites, instead.

B. Creating Sacred Space--Tenskwatawa's village near Greenville to on a new role--it was a sacred place for many Native peoples, much like Vatican City serves as the space that the Roman Catholic look on as the home of their religious leader on earth, the pope. In fact, Tenskwatawa's village consisted almost entirely of sacred ground; various native groups who migrated to Greenville to listen to Tenskwatawa speak actually lived in their own temporary village nearby, where they erected temporary shelters (much like Native groups did at places like the Glaize).

1. The Longhouse Church--the main area for worship was a large structure that witnesses said was at least 150 feet long. Each evening, the Prophet appeared in this structure, and preached to the gathered masses. Although not physically imposing, or attractive, when Tenskwatawa spoke on these occasions, witnesses found him mesmerizing.

The Prophet's Village at Greenville

I. Move from the White River Villages

A. Harrison's Land Grab

This is an early example of William Henry Harrison's commitment to acquire as much land in the west as was feasible, and which set Native Americans in the west on edge, as it became apparent that the Americans were determined to take as much of their land as they could hold--and made the Prophets message resonate with them more.

B. The Move to Greenville--Although Tenskwatawa maintained that he established his polyglot town in Greenville (meaning that the settlers there came from a wide variety of Native American peoples) at the insistence of the Great Spirit, it is apparent that this moved served his purpose politically, as well. If one were setting up a resistance movement, establishing a settlement where the treaty was signed deeding a large amount of land was ceded certainly makes a great deal of sense. Many Native Americans undoubtedly saw this as a symbolic gesture, meant to indirectly challenge American control over the ceded land.

C. Wells' warning to Harrison about the growing influence of the Prophet.


As has already been alluded to earlier, Wells was an American agent with very close ties to the Miami tribe--he married the daughter of the great Miami war leader, known to us as Little Turtle. Although Harrison was suspicious of Wells, and where his allegiance lie, by 1807 Wells had gained Harrison's trust, and this warning Harrison took very seriously.

C. Evidence of the growing influence of the Prophet (or, as Harrison refers to him in this passage, the Imposter), and Harrison's attempt to counteract that influence.


This is, in many ways, one of the most interesting documents in attempting to understand the relationship between William Henry Harrison and Tenskwatawa. It is usually argued that Tenskwatawa somehow found out about the total eclipse, and then Harrison presents him with this golden opportunity. Yet Tenskwatawa spoke nor understood English, and limited his contact with whites by this time. It has also been argued that Tecumseh, in earlier contact with whites, had learned to read and write English, gotten hold of an almanac, and retained enough knowledge of the coming solar eclipse to remember the date when Harrison challenged the Prophet. If you are persuaded by this, I have a wonderful piece of land I'd like to sell you in Florida, near the waster--see me after class if your interested. Lastly, if this solar eclipse was such a widely known event (it's also been argued that eclipse hunters were traveling around the backwood attempting to find the one best spot from which to view it)--why doesn't Harrison know about it, someone who could read English, and who had a better chance at accessing this information than either Native American brother. I think a more plausible answer lies in acknowledging the serendipity of much of the human condition--pure chance.